Important lessons for every Da'i

Calling non-Muslims and helping Muslims to remain steadfast in Islam

1. A serious dialogue with a Christian 
2. The Merits of Islam 
3. Questions from a confused Christian 
4. Discussion with a Christian about the Crucifixion 
5. Discussion With a Christian: The Oneness of God is the Message of Jesus and all the Prophets, Peace be Upon Them 
6. Doubts about what the Qur’aan says about ‘Eesa (peace be upon him) 
7. How to call a Christian to Islam 
8. A Christian woman whose father died and her co-religionists ignore her; she is thinking about entering Islam 
9. How can I call someone who wants to become Christian?

Writing 11: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Many forces combine to create a classroom's learning environment. This environment could be positive or negative, efficient or inefficient. Much of this depends on the plans you have in place to deal with situations that affect this environment. The following list looks at each of these forces in order to help teachers better understand how to ensure that they are creating a positive learning environment for all students.

1. Teacher Behaviors

Teachers set the tone for the classroom setting. If as a teacher you try hard to be even-tempered, fair with your students, and equitable in rule enforcement than you will have set a high standard for your classroom. Of the many factors that affect a classroom environment, your behavior is the one factor that you can completely control.

2. Teacher Characteristics

The core characteristics of your personality also affect the classroom environment. Are you humorous? Are you able to take a joke? Are you sarcastic? Are you an optimist or a pessimist? All of these and other personal characteristics will shine through in your classroom and affect the learning environment. Therefore, it is important that you take stock of your traits and make adjustments if necessary.

3. Student Behavior

Disruptive students can really affect the classroom environment. It is important that you have a firm discipline policy that you enforce on a daily basis. Stopping problems before they start by moving students or diffusing situations before they begin are key. However, it is hard when you have that one student who always seems to push your buttons. Use all the resources at your disposal including mentors, guidance counselors, phone calls home, and if necessary the administration to help you keep the situation under control.

4. Student Characteristics

This factor takes into account overriding characteristics of the group of students you are teaching. For example, you will find that students from urban areas like New York City will have different characteristics than those from rural areas of the country. Therefore, the classroom environment will also be different.

5. Curriculum

What you teach will have an effect on the classroom learning environment. Mathematicsclassrooms are much different than social studies classrooms. Typically, teachers will not be holding classroom debates or using role playing games to help teach math. Therefore, this will have an effect on teacher and student expectations of the classroom learning environment.

6. Classroom Setup

Classrooms with desks in rows are quite different than those where students sit around tables. The environment will be different too. Talking is typically less in a classroom set up in the traditional manner. However, interaction and teamwork are much easier in a learning environment where students sit together.

7. Time

Time refers to not only time spent in class but also the time of day in which a class is held. First, the time spent in class will have an impact on the learning environment. If your school uses a block schedule, there will be more time on certain days spent in the classroom. This will have an impact on student behavior and learning.

The time of day in which you teach a specific class is beyond your control. However, it can have a huge impact on student attention and retention. For example, a class right before the end of the day is often less productive than one at the beginning of the morning.

8. School Policies

Your school's policies and administration will have an impact within your classroom. For example, the school's approach to interrupting instruction can impact learning during the school day. Schools do not want to interrupt class time. However, some administrations put in policies or guidelines that strictly regulate those interruptions while others are more lax about calling into a class.

9. Community Characteristics

The community-at-large impacts your classroom. If you live in an economically depressed area, you might find that the students have different concerns than those in a well-off community. This will impact classroom discussions and behavior.

Source

http://712educators.about.com/od/classroomhelpers/tp/Creating-A-Positive-Learning-Environment.htm

Writing 10: Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment

Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity).

Types

The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to gauge student progress.[2] Though the notion of assessment is generally more complicated than the following categories suggest, assessment is often divided for the sake of convenience using the following distinctions:

1.       initial, formative, and summative

2.       objective and subjective

3.       referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative)

4.       informal and formal

Initial, formative and summative

Assessment is often divided into initial, formative, and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices.

Initial assessment - Also referred to as pre-assessment or diagnostic assessment, initial assessments are conducted prior to instruction or intervention to establish a baseline from which individual student growth can be measured.

Formative assessment - Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as "educative assessment," is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a student's work and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments can take the form of diagnostic, standardized tests.

Summative assessment - Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative.

Objective and subjective

Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or online assessment format.

Norm-referenced, criterion-referenced and ipsative assessment

Norm-referenced assessment.

This is assessment that is based on comparing the relative performances of students, either by comparing the performances of individual students within the group being tested, or by comparing their performance with that of others of similar age, experience and background

Criterion-referenced assessment.

Here, the performance of students or trainees is assessed against pre-determined criteria, without regard to their performance relative to one another. Such assessment generally involves determining whether the student or trainee can carry out specific tasks or activities, within a particular situation or context, and to a set minimum standard

Ipsative assessment.

In this mode of assessment, a person's performance is compared with their own earlier performance, with a view to determining whether any improvement has been made, or any 'added value' brought about. Such assessment might involve setting a learner the same test prior to and after undertaking a course or unit thereof, keeping track of how a student's average percentage mark or overall grade average changes as they progress through an entire course, or seeing how an athlete's 'personal best' time, distance, etc improves with training.

Evaluation

Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.

There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. Educational institutions usually require evaluation data to demonstrate effectiveness to funders and other stakeholders, and to provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes. Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

Reference

1.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_assessment

2.       http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/celt/pgcerttlt/assessing/assess5.htm

3.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_evaluation

Writing 9: TEACHING STRATEGIES

TEACHING STRATEGIES

Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic, social and technological pressures to be more responsive to students' needs and more concerned about how well students are prepared to assume future societal roles. Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture less, to make learning environments more interactive, to integrate technology into the learning experience, and to use collaborative learning strategies when appropriate.
Some of the more prominent strategies are outlined below. For more information about the use of these and other pedagogical approaches, contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning.
Lecture. For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional strategy in college classrooms. Nearly 80% of all U.S. college classrooms in the late 1970s reported using some form of the lecture method to teach students (Cashin, 1990). Although the usefulness of other teaching strategies is being widely examined today, the lecture still remains an important way to communicate information.
Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can be an effective way to achieve instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a way to communicate a large amount of information to many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-threatening to students. The disadvantages are that lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often disengages students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten.
The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective (Cashin, 1990):

1. Fit the lecture to the audience

2. Focus your topic - remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture

3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one lecture

4. Organize your points for clarity

5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations

6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives

7. Repeat points when necessary

8. Be aware of your audience - notice their feedback

9. Be enthusiastic - you don’t have to be an entertainer but you should be excited by your topic.
(from Cashin, 1990, pp. 60-61)Case Method. Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life experiences has proven to be an effective way of both disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is an instructional strategy that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent in practical application. It can highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and provide a format for role playing ambiguous or controversial scenarios.
Course content cases can come from a variety of sources. Many faculty have transformed current events or problems reported through print or broadcast media into critical learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding solutions to critical social problems. The case study approach works well in cooperative learning or role playing environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple perspectives.
Discussion. There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some faculty begin a lesson with a whole group discussion to refresh students’ memories about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it helpful to have students list critical points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming from the assigned reading(s). These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group discussions.
Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of the instructor and preparation on the part of the students. Instructors should communicate this commitment to the students on the first day of class by clearly articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor carefully plans the learning experience, the students must comprehend the assigned reading and show up for class on time, ready to learn.
Active Learning. Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow “students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities -- all of which require students to apply what they are learning” (p. xi). Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson. For more information about teaching strategies, see the list of college teaching references in Appendix N.
Assessing or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them. For more information about grading, see the Evaluating Student Work section contained in this Guide.
Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process.
When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to consult several helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary information and helpful techniques for using cooperative learning or collaborative learning in college classrooms.
Integrating Technology. Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education. Integrating technology into a course curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings. Others use listserves or on-line notes to extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline- specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts.
Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline. For help in integrating technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning or the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at 703-993-3141. In addition, watch for information throughout the year about workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology, teaching and learning.
Distance Learning. Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is defined as 'any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not in the same place at the same time' (Gilbert, 1995).
Obviously, information technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies take many forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, listserves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the educational setting.
For more information about distance learning contact the Instructional Development Office at 703-993-3141 (Fairfax Campus) and watch for workshops and faculty discussions on the topic throughout the year.

Source
http://www.gmu.edu/resources/facstaff/part-time/strategy.html

Writing 8: How to Deal with Diversity in the Classroom

How to Deal with Diversity in the Classroom

Teachers and students need to work together to create a classroom environment that is inclusive within the context of increasing cultural diversity in schools. Students must feel supported and be able to express their views and concerns. This article describes helpful strategies to deal with diversity in the classroom.

Identifying One's Own Attitudes Towards Diversity

To deal with diversity in the classroom, teachers must first identify their own attitudes. This begins with increasing awareness of their assumptions about people who are different from them. This will help teachers to be more sensitive and thoughtful towards students who are different.Moreover, there is the need to broaden their horizons.

A good start is to get to know the students in their class. The students in any classroom are usually diverse and teachers can learn from them. Additionally, teachers need to build relationships in the classroom - students need to know that teachers care about their welfare despite the existing differences.

Recognise student’s diversity

It is important that teachers recognise diversity in the classroom. Indeed, various forms of diversity exist in classrooms including ethnic, gender, cultural diversity, differences in abilities and leaning styles. Of course, teachers serve as role models for students to appreciate diversity among their peers.

Teachers need to recognise that students have different learning styles and thus, they must use varied methods and activities to better serve them. When various teaching techniques are incorporated in lessons, this allows teachers to address a wide spectrum of learners.

Promote a Respectful Learning Environment

Promoting a respectful learning environment begins with seeing each student as an individual. Each student is respected for who she/he is. Teachers, therefore, promote communication. They talk to their students respectfully and encourage them to participate in class.

Activities that Promote Learning for All Students

Various strategies may be employed within the classroom to promote learning for diverse groups of students. One such techniques is grouping students for learning. This improves the interpersonal relationships among students. Students also learn from each other, and this can be a way of teaching diversity.

All students should be encouraged to participate in classroom discussions. However, there is a need to respect their differences. For example, some students feel more comfortable listening. Furthermore, guest speakers from particular groups could make presentations to the class. This could broaden and enrich students' learning and foster diversity in class.

An environment that is comfortable and non-threatening facilitates diversity in the classroom. This gives students a sense of belonging, even where there are differences, and promotes learning.

Source

http://shirley-taylor.over-blog.com/article-deal-with-diversity-classroom-85965960.html

Also see

http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Teach-to-a-Diverse-Classroom-of-Students&id=436

Writing 7: Understanding Learner Characteristics & Learning Styles

Understanding Learner Characteristics & Learning Styles

Learner characteristics, experience, skills and his/her perceptions about the world play an important role in determining how leaner would react and acquire the new information being taught to him/her. Every learner is an individual, different from others, so teachers should know individual differences and has to cater all the learners.

General intelligence vs multiple intelligence

General intelligence

General Intelligence is the ability to think about ideas, analyze situations, and solve problems. It is measured through various types of intelligence tests.

Currently, through research, psychologists have identified several types of mental abilities that make up intelligence.

Multiple intelligence

According to Cherry, (2010) Howard Gardner theory disputed the analysis of test scores by contributing intelligence as a multiple combination of eight intelligences which are; Musical Intelligence being used for music and vocal coordination and memorization, Intra personal Intelligence on how the person relate with others, Naturalistic Intelligence that enable someone to relate relationship and patterns to nature, Mathematical Intelligence (Logical) by promoting logical decision making.

Spatial Intelligence (Visual) that enables someone to transform mental images to spatial skills, Interpersonal Intelligence, Linguistic Intelligence (Verbal) by promotion on communication skills and eloquence and Kinesthetic Intelligence (Bodily) which is the skills that enables someone to control the motion of their body and handle objects carefully. A combination of the eight intelligences forms a complete person’s intelligence unlike in Charles Spearman – General Intelligence which was in support of a pattern that if one passes one test there is high likelihood that they will pass on subsequent tests.

Learning Styles - Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learning Styles (VAK)

The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (movement) to determine the dominant learning style. It is sometimes known as VAKT (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, & Tactile). It is based on modalities—channels by which human expression can take place and is composed of a combination of perception and memory.

VAK is derived from the accelerated learning world and seems to be about the most popular model nowadays due to its simplicity. While the research has shown a connection with modalities and learning styles (University of Pennsylvania, 2009), the research has so far been unable to prove the using one's learning style provides the best means for learning a task or subject. This is probably because it is more of a preference, rather than a style.

Learners use all three modalities to receive and learn new information and experiences. However, according to the VAK or modality theory, one or two of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This dominant style defines the best way for a person to learn new information by filtering what is to be learned. This style may not always to be the same for some tasks. The learner may prefer one style of learning for one task, and a combination of others for a different task.

Classically, our learning style is forced upon us through life like this: In grades kindergarten to third, new information is presented to us kinesthetically; grades 4 to 8 are visually presented; while grades 9 to college and on into the business environment, information is presented to us mostly through auditory means, such as lectures.

According to the VAK theorists, we need to present information using all three styles. This allows all learners the opportunity to become involved, no matter what their preferred style may be.

While there is some evidence for modality specific strengths and weaknesses (Rourke, et al. 2002), what has has not been established is matching the instructional style to individual learning strength improves their learning abilities. For example, one study (Constantinidou and Baker, 2002), found that visual presentation through the use of pictures was advantageous for all adults, irrespective of a high or low learning-style preference for visual images. Indeed, it was especially advantageous for those with a strong preference for verbal processin

Hints for Recognizing and Implementing the Three VAK Styles

Auditory learners often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They may have difficulty with reading and writing tasks. They often do better talking to a colleague or a tape recorder and hearing what was said. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

·         Begin new material with a brief explanation of what is coming. Conclude with a summary of what has been covered. This is the old adage of “tell them what they are going to lean, teach them, and tell them what they have learned.”

·         Use the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to draw as much information from them as possible and then fill in the gaps with you own expertise.

·         Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or Jeopardy. Leave plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to make connections of what they leaned and how it applies to their situation.

·         Have the learners verbalize the questions.

·         Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.

Visual learners have two sub-channels—linguistic and spatial. Learners who are visual-linguistic like to learn through written language, such as reading and writing tasks. They remember what has been written down, even if they do not read it more than once. They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch them. Learners who are visual-spatial usually have difficulty with the written language and do better with charts, demonstrations, videos, and other visual materials. They easily visualize faces and places by using their imagination and seldom get lost in new surroundings. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

·         Use graphs, charts, illustrations, or other visual aids.

·         Include outlines, concept maps, agendas, handouts, etc. for reading and taking notes.

·         Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning session.

·         Leave white space in handouts for note-taking.

·         Invite questions to help them stay alert in auditory environments.

·         Post flip charts to show what will come and what has been presented.

·         Emphasize key points to cue when to takes notes.

·         Eliminate potential distractions.

·         Supplement textual information with illustrations whenever possible.

·         Have them draw pictures in the margins.

·         Have the learners envision the topic or have them act out the subject matter.

Kinesthetic learners do best while touching and moving. It also has two sub-channels: kinesthetic (movement) and tactile (touch). They tend to lose concentration if there is little or no external stimulation or movement. When listening to lectures they may want to take notes for the sake of moving their hands. When reading, they like to scan the material first, and then focus in on the details (get the big picture first). They typically use color high lighters and take notes by drawing pictures, diagrams, or doodling. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

·         Use activities that get the learners up and moving.

·         Play music, when appropriate, during activities.

·         Use colored markers to emphasize key points on flip charts or white boards.

·         Give frequent stretch breaks (brain breaks).

·         Provide toys such as Koosh balls and Play-Dough to give them something to do with their hands.

·         To highlight a point, provide gum, candy, scents, etc. which provides a cross link of scent (aroma) to the topic at hand (scent can be a powerful cue).

·         Provide high lighters, colored pens and/or pencils.

·         Guide learners through a visualization of complex tasks.

·         Have them transfer information from the text to another medium such as a keyboard or a tablet.

Reference

http://perfectwritings.com/blog/general-intelligence-vs-multiple-intelligences/

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/styles/vakt.html

PowerPoint presentation by Roza Ibrahim, MNU

Writing 6: Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory based on behavioral learning theory and cognitive learning theory. The theory included contribution of social element on learning. According to Bandura, people learn by watching others. There are three main concepts in this theory. They are; people learn by observing others – as in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, cognitive state is useful in learning – which explains about intrinsic reinforcement like self-satisfaction, and learning does not always need to change behavior.

The modeling process or observational learning includes attention – distractions from environment decrease progress in learning, retention – retrieval of information been paid attention, reproduction – reproducing image of the model by performing the behavior observed, and motivation – reinforcements and punishments play an important role in motivating to imitate observed model.

Reference

My final assignment in Understanding Padagogy & Learning Theories, April 27, 2013

Writing 5: Motivation

Motivation

Motivation is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat.

Types of Motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Motivational Theories

The behavioral view of motivation

The most common version of the behavioral perspective on motivation is the theory of operant conditioning associated with B. F. Skinner (1938, 1957). Behaviorism is a theory of learning, but the same operant model can be transformed into an account of motivation. In the operant model, you may recall, a behavior being learned (the “operant”) increases in frequency or likelihood because performing it makes a reinforcement available. To understand this model in terms of motivation, think of the likelihood of response as the motivation and the reinforcement as the motivator. Imagine, for example, that a student learns by operant conditioning to answer questions during class discussions: each time the student answers a question (the operant), the teacher praises (reinforces) this behavior.

The social-cognitive view of motivation

Social cognitivists view motivation as product of expectancies of individual to reach a goal and its value to him or her. If either factor is zero, there will not be any motivation to reach the goal. For example, if I believe I have a good chance of qualifying The National Quran Competition and participating in the competition is very important for me, then my motivation should be strongest. If either factor is zero (i-e if I believe I have no chance of qualifying to the competition, or participating in the competition is useless for me), then my motivation would be zero.

Cognitive view of motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation assume that behavior is directed as a result of the active processing and interpretation of information. Motivation is not seen as a mechanical or innate set of processes but as a purposive and persistent set of behaviors based on the information available. Expectations, based on past experiences, serve to direct behavior toward particular goals, so goals, attributes, schemas and expectancies are the main features contributing motivation and demotivation.

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation

Abraham Maslow’s theory is based on the concept that humans have basic needs that need to be met before moving up the pyramid to the next basic need, until eventually reaching ‘self-actualization’ as seen at the top of the pyramid in the diagram to the right. Reaching ‘self-actualization’ means the person can then trust, be creative, problem solve, and have a sense of morality.

Five Stages of Needs Theory:

1.      Physiological Needs - The basic needs for survival have to be met, such as food, water, sleep, and homeostasis. Without these basic needs one cannot possibly think about anything else beyond how to survive.

2.      Safety - This stage includes feeling safe and secure; maybe the person has some source of income, health, and a place to call home. If we do not feel safe and secure, whether it be for bodily safety or safety of resources, it is all consuming and hard to think of anything else in a productive way.

3.      Love/belonging – The person has some sort of friendship, relationship with family, or sexual intimacy. This is a feeling of belonging, which we all want to feel and leads to the next step.

4.      Esteem – This need includes a good feeling of self-esteem and maybe a sense of achievement, which results in a show of confidence, respect for others, and respect by others. When humans feel good about themselves, they worry less about what others think of them and start taking more chances.

5.      Self-actualization – The final stage encompasses an acceptance of facts, a lack of prejudice, spontaneity, creativity, and the ability to problem solve. This is the point in one’s life where people can see the potential in themselves and act on

Reference

1.      http://motivation-project.wikispaces.com/Humanistic+Theories+of+Motivation

2.      http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/124503/cognitive-motivation

3.      http://cnx.org/content/m43359/1.2/

4.      http://www.academia.edu/1323999/The_Difference_Between_Extrinsic_and_Intrinsic_Motivation

5.      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation

6.      PowerPoint presentation by Roza Ibrahim, COL – Maldives National University

Writing 4 : Constructive perspectives

Constructivist perspectives

Constructivism is a theory explaining how knowledge is constructed in human being when information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed. It has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. According to Jean Piaget, knowledge is internalized by learners through processes of accommodation and assimilation. People learn by actively exploring the world around them, receiving feedback on their actions, and drawing conclusions.

Constructively leads to integration of concepts and skills into the learner’s existing conceptual or competency structures. Learning can be applied to new contexts and expressed in new ways. Constructive theories are more concerned with how knowledge and skills are internalized than how they are manifest in external behavior.

In constructivism, assimilation is learning that occurs when new information is absorbed into an existing framework. The person’s overall beliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information. Instead, the information is incorporated into the beliefs that already exist. For example John has a basic understanding of physics. Therefore, it was easy for him to assimilate the things he learned in his graduate physics class.

In constructivist theory, accommodation is one of two ways that humans actively learn. If we try something and we do not get the expected reaction, then we change our beliefs to accommodate that new information. For example Mike believed that all women are physically weak. When he was beaten at arm-wrestling by a woman, he accommodated that new information and accepted that not all women are weak.

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically are typical constructive approaches represented by a four stage learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the bases':

1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience).

2. Reflective Observation (of the new experience. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding).

3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept).

4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to the world around them to see what results).

Example Pedagogic Approaches:

Cognitive scaffolding

It is a learning process designed to promote a deeper level of learning. Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals (Sawyer, 2006).

Experiential learning

It is the process of making meaning from direct experience, i.e., "learning from experience". An example of experiential learning is going to the zoo and learning through observation and interaction with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences.

Experimental learning

It is a philosophy of education that describes the process that occurs between a teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the learning environment and content

Constructivist learning environments

Constructivist learning environments presents the challenge of synthesizing a large spectrum of somewhat disparate concepts. Modern constructivist learning environments are technology-based in which learners are engaged in meaningful interactions.  Emphasis is on learners who interpret and construct meaning based on their own experiences and interactions.

Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of problem solving. Students learn both thinking strategies and domain knowledge. Example of a problem based case could be like this. A woman with type AB blood gave birth to a child with blood type O. A second type-O child was born six years later. This case appears to contradict Mendelian inhertiance, which the students will be obliged to thorougly review, but it also demands that they make a rigorous examination of meiosis, gametogenesis, fertilization, and early development in order to propose some credible explanatory mechanisms

Research based learning

In Research-based learning, research is regarded as a theme which underpins teaching at a range of levels. As well as incorporating outcomes of research into curricula, it includes developing students' awareness of processes and methods of enquiry, and creating an inclusive culture of research involving staff and students.

Reference

1.      PowerPoint presentation on constructive perspective by Roza Ibrahim, Maldives National University

2.      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_education

3.      http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emurphy/stemnet/cle3.html

4.      http://www.accesswave.ca/~hgunn/special/papers/hypertxt/cle.html

5.      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning

6.      http://capewest.ca/pbl.html

7.      http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/ldc/resource/rbl/whatis/

8.      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#Examples

9.      http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emurphy/stemnet/cle2b.html

10.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)

11.  http://phobias.about.com/od/glossary/g/assimilationdef.htm

12.  http://phobias.about.com/od/glossary/g/accommodatdef.htm

13.  http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Educational_Philosophy/Constructivism

14.  http://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html

15.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_scaffolding

16.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_learning